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Data indexing techniques for identity systems include inverted indexes for attribute-based searches (e.g., "Find all VCs with ‘Over 18’ claims"), B-tree structures for sorted data retrieval, and hash indexes for DID lookups. Elasticsearch or Solr enable full-text search across credential metadata. Graph databases (Neo4j) index relationships between entities (e.g., "Issuer-Credential-Holder"). Caching frequent queries reduces latency, while partitioning distributes indexes across nodes for scalability.